Computer-assisted Instruction

It will be helpful, before discussing the research findings, to offer some definitions of CAI and other kinds of learning activities involving computers. As Kulik, Kulik, and Bangert-Drowns point out in their 1985 research summary, "the terminology in the area is open to dispute" (p. 59). This is putting it mildly. Those seeking to make sense of the array of terms used by educators and researchers--computer-assisted instruction, computer-based education, computer-based instruction, computer-enriched instruction, computermanaged instruction--can easily become confused. The following definitions are a synthesis of those offered by Bangert-Drowns, et al. (1985), Batey (1987), Grimes (1977), Samson et al. (1986), and Stennett (1985), and represent commonly accepted (though certainly not the only) definitions of these terms:

• Computer-based education (CBE) and computer-based instruction (CBI) are the broadest terms and can refer to virtually any kind of computer use in educational settings, including drill and practice, tutorials, simulations, instructional management, supplementary exercises, programming, database development, writing using word processors, and other applications. These terms may refer either to stand-alone computer learning activities or to computer activities which reinforce material introduced and taught by teachers.
• Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is a narrower term and most often refers to drill-and-practice, tutorial, or simulation activities offered either by themselves or as supplements to traditional, teacherdirected instruction.
• Computer-managed instruction (CMI) can refer either to the use of computers by school staff to organize student data and make instructional decisions or to activities in which the computer evaluates students' test performance, guides them to appropriate instructional resources, and keeps records of their progress.
• Computer-enriched instruction (CEI) is defined as learning activities in which computers (1) generate data at the students' request to illustrate relationships in models of social or physical reality, (2) execute programs developed by the students, or (3) provide general enrichment in relatively unstructured exercises designed to stimulate and motivate students.

LEARNING RATE

As well as enabling students to achieve at higher levels, researchers have also found that CAI enhances learning rate. Student learning rate is faster with CAI than with conventional instruction. In some research studies, the students learned the same amount of material in less time than the traditionally instructed students; in others, they learned more material in the same time. While most researchers don't specify how much faster CAI students learn, the work of Capper and Copple (1985) led them to the conclusion that CAI users sometimes learn as much as 40 percent faster than those receiving traditional, teacher-directed instruction.

(Batey 1986; Capper and Copple 1985; Edwards, et al. 1975; Grimes 1977; Hasselbring 1984; Kulik 1983, 1985; Kulik, Bangert, and Williams 1983; Kulik and Kulik 1987; Rapaport and Savard 1980; Rupe 1986; Stennett 1985; White 1983.)

RETENTION OF LEARNING

If students receiving CAI learn better and faster than students receiving conventional instruction alone, do they also retain their learning better? The answer, according to researchers who have conducted comparative studies of learning retention, is yes. In this research, student scores on delayed tests indicate that the retention of content learned using CAI is superior to retention following traditional instruction alone.

(Capper and Copple 1985; Grimes 1977; Kulik 1985; Kulik, Bangert, and Williams 1983; Kulik, Kulik, and Bangert-Drowns 1985; Rupe 1986; Stennett 1985; Woodward, Carnine, and Gersten 1988.)

ATTITUDES

Much of the research that examines the effects of CAI and other microcomputer applications on student learning outcomes also investigates effects upon student attitudes. This line of inquiry has brought most researchers to the conclusion that the use of CAI leads to more positive student attitudes than the use of conventional instruction. This general finding has emerged from studies of the effects of CAI on student attitudes toward:

• Computers and the use of computers in education (Batey 1986; Ehman and Glen 1987; Hasselbring 1984; Hess and Tenezakis 1971; Kulik 1983, 1985; Kulik, Bangert, and Williams 1983; Roblyer 1988; Way 1984)
• Course content/subject matter (Batey 1986; Braun 1990; Dalton and Hannafin 1988; Ehman and Glen 1987; Hounshell and Hill 1989; Rapaport and Savard 1980; Roblyer, et al. 1988; Rodriguez and Rodriguez 1986; Stennett 1985)
• Quality of instruction (Kulik, Bangert, and Williams 1983; Kulik and Kulik 1987; Rupe 1986; White 1983)
• School in general (Batey 1986; Bialo and Sivin 1990; Ehman and Glen 1987; Roblyer, et al. 1988)
• Self-as-learner (Bialo and Sivin 1990; Mevarech and Rich 1985; Robertson, et al. 1987; Rupe 1986).

OTHER BENEFICIAL EFFECTS

The effects of CAI on other student outcomes have not been as extensively researched as CAI's effects on achievement, learning rate, retention, and attitudes. Some researchers have, however, investigated CAI's influence on other variables and found it to confer benefits on:

• Locus of control. Capper and Copple (1985), Kinnaman (1990), and Louie (1985) found that CAI students have more of an internal locus of control/sense of self-efficacy than conventionally instructed students.
• Attendance. CAI students had better attendance in Capper and Copple's 1985 study, Rupe's 1986 review, and the 1990 ISTE study.
• Motivation/time-on-task. Bialo and Sivin (1990) and Capper and Copple (1985) found that CAI students had higher rates of time-on-task than traditionally instructed controls.
• Cooperation/collaboration. Cooperative, prosocial behavior was greater with CAI in the work of Dickinson (1986); Mevarech, Stern, and Levita (1987); and Rupe (1986).

The purpose of this study was to determine how computer-assisted-instruction improves student performance among various types of students. 161 middle school students of various program types: special education, non-English proficient, limited English proficient, and regular education, completed instructional units using a computer program, CornerStone. Regular education students were found to have made greater pretest-posttest gains than special education students using an ANCOVA test, F1, 156, 0.95, = 15.59, p < 0.0001. Collectively, the students showed significant pretest-posttest gains, t160, 0.95 = 6.02, p < 0.0001 using a dependent t-test. The direction of future research was suggested based on the results.

There is no doubt that technology has become incorporated into our school systems. Computers are used not only as a means of helping schools analyze data, computers have become a pervasive tool toward optimizing student learning. For example, students are regularly using the Internet to gather and assimilate information for use in research assignments. They are preparing "electronic" presentations using computer presentation programs and LCD projectors. They are using word processing programs to create various other reports. Students are even using spreadsheets to increase their experiences with mathematical concepts. In addition, many schools have incorporated interactive computer-assisted-instruction into their program to provide students opportunities to master specific educational objectives or standards.

Review of Pertinent Studies

Computer programmers have been able to create computer-assisted-instruction programs that have served to increase student learning by affecting cognitive processes and increasing motivation. Current research shows the mechanisms by which computer programs facilitate this learning: (1) personalizing information, (2) animating objects on the screen, (3) providing practice activities that incorporate challenges and curiosity, (4) providing a fantasy context and (5) providing a learner with choice over his/her own learning.

Computer-assisted instruction is used through the entire range of education from preschool to professional school. It has been offered in a wide variety of fields, including all the main school subjects taught in elementary and secondary schools. At CALI, the Center for Computer-Assisted Legal Instruction, law students from across the United States and other countries such as Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, Ireland, Kenya, Korea, Mexico, the Netherlands, Nigeria, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, Sweden, and Taiwan have access to CAI law school lessons to supplement their instruction.

Computer-assisted instruction has also been growing in use in a wide number of employment areas. It has been used to teach novice nurses how to perform intravenous injections, to teach jet engine mechanics in the US Air Force maintenance tasks, and to provide safety instruction for food service workers in an urban hospital.

CAI can also focus on smaller segments of the population. Computer-assisted instruction has also been used to personalize learning for people with learning disabilities, language limitations, and physical limitations. In the latter case, screen-reading programs may cater to sight-impaired users, and a variety of specialized interactive devices, such as roller balls, joysticks, and oversized keyboards may be used by a person when a mouse or standard keyboard present a challenge.

What Is Computer-Assisted Instruction?

“Computer-assisted instruction” (CAI) refers to instruction or remediation presented on a computer. Many educational computer programs are available online and from computer stores and textbook companies. They enhance teacher instruction in several ways.

Computer programs are interactive and can illustrate a concept through attractive animation, sound, and demonstration. They allow students to progress at their own pace and work individually or problem solve in a group. Computers provide immediate feedback, letting students know whether their answer is correct. If the answer is not correct, the program shows students how to correctly answer the question. Computers offer a different type of activity and a change of pace from teacher-led or group instruction.

Computer-assisted instruction improves instruction for students with disabilities because students receive immediate feedback and do not continue to practice the wrong skills. Computers capture the students’ attention because the programs are interactive and engage the students’ spirit of competitiveness to increase their scores. Also, computer-assisted instruction moves at the students’ pace and usually does not move ahead until they have mastered the skill. Programs provide differentiated lessons to challenge students who are at risk, average, or gifted. *

What Does CAI Look Like for Writing?

Computer-Assisted Writing Instruction

Computer programs for writing help students with developing ideas, organizing, outlining, and brainstorming. Templates provide a framework and reduce the physical effort spent on writing so that students can pay attention to organization and content.

The example at the right, similar to the program Inspiration, demonstrates how a student has organized her writing. Her topic is the Chesapeake Bay. She thinks about three main ideas for her topic: food, fun, and jobs. Next, she adds supporting details for each of her three main ideas. Now she can compose her paragraph. Programs like Inspiration or Kidspiration are fun because students can use pictures, change the shape or colors of the circles, and change the chart into an outline.

Computer Programs for Writing

Word prediction

• Student-specific programs that identify words that student uses repeatedly; when the student types the first few letters, the program lists frequently used words that start with those letters
• speeds up the typing process

Speech-to-text

• student speaks into a microphone and the program types the words
• program must be “trained” to the student’s word pronunciation and speech style
• student must be taught how to use the program
• increased speed from thought to text

Text-to-speech

• student can hear what she has typed to check if it says what she wants it to say
• good for editing

Spell-checker

• helps student identify misspelled words
• automatically corrects words if the teacher set the program that way

Thesaurus

• offers student other words that mean the same as the word he or she is using
• adds variety to student’s writing and increases student vocabulary

Word processors are excellent tools for students who find handwriting tedious. Often, students with disabilities have difficulty with all the requirements for the writing process. They have trouble organizing their thoughts and then retaining those thoughts long enough to put them on paper. Their handwriting must be neat enough and their spelling and grammar correct enough to convey their message, tasks that they may find difficult.

But before word-processing can save time during the actual writing process, students must know how to type and how to use the computer. Typing speeds may be slower without proper instruction in typing; slower typing may lead to less quality and shorter length in writing assignments (MacArthur, 2000; MacArthur, Ferretti, Okolo, & Cavalier, 2001). If students cannot type fluently or must search for letters and numbers, the process may be slower than handwriting.

Examples of computer programs that assist students in the writing process are listed in the box at left. If students are taught to type early in elementary school and taught to use these programs, the writing process can become less frustrating. This is not to say that students should not be taught how to spell and to use proper grammar. Students can learn to use these programs to increase the speed from thought to paper to make the process less stressful for them. It can increase their vocabulary and their attitude toward writing. Students with disabilities may actually find they enjoy the writing process.

How Is CAI Implemented?

Teachers should review the computer program or the online activity or game to understand the context of the lessons and determine which ones fit the needs of their students and how they may enhance instruction.

• Can this program supplement the lesson, give basic skills practice, or be used as an educational reward for students?
• Is the material presented so that students will remain interested yet not lose valuable instruction time trying to figure out how to operate the program? Does the program waste time with too much animation?
• Is the program at the correct level for the class or the individual student?
• Does this program do what the teacher wants it to do (help students organize the writing, speed up the writing process, or allow students to hear what they wrote for editing purposes)?

Teachers should also review all Web sites and links immediately before directing students to them. Web addresses and links frequently change and become inactive. Students might become frustrated when links are no longer available.

Writing programs are beneficial to writing instruction because they allow students to learn in a variety of ways and can speed up the writing process. With proper training, students can learn to focus on the message instead of the mechanics.

A number of different approaches to the use of computers in education are reflected in educational practices. A useful classification of these approaches is that of Goldberg and Sherwood (1983). Of these categories - Learning from computers, Learning about computers, and Learning about thinking with computers - the most relevant to this study isLearning from computers.

Learning from computers encompasses approaches to CAI in which the computer is used as a means for transmitting specific subject matter, such as reading. The flow of information is basically from the computer to the student, with the computer presenting learning material or activities for student responses. The computer retains records of the student’s progress through the course of study. Based on the degree of interaction between student and computer, researchers have identified three levels of CAI:

Drill and practice: The computer provides the student with exercises that reinforce the learning of specific skills taught in the classroom, and supplies immediate feedback on the correctness of the response. Used in this manner, CAI functions as a supplement to regular classroom instruction, and may be especially useful when a teacher does not have the time to work individually with each student. Drill and practice on the computer may also motivate students more than traditional workbook exercises.

Tutorial: Tutorial CAI provides some information or clarifies certain concepts in addition to providing the student with practice exercises. In this sense, the computer begins to take over actual instructional functions, tailored to the student’s individual level of achievement.

Dialogue: With this type of computer use, the student takes an active role in interacting with the computer, giving instructions in the form of a computer language so as to structure the student’s own curriculum. The computer provides information, exercises, and feedback. Dialogue CAI is believed to come closest to actually substituting for regular instruction (Gourgey, Azumi, Madhere, & Walker, 1984).

The verdict for the use of computers in education seems to be in. As stated by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES):

Computers have become an essential tool in our society. Early exposure to computers may help students gain the computer literacy that will be crucial for future success in the workplace. Access to computers at school and at home allows students to retrieve information, manipulate data, and produce results efficiently and in innovative ways. Examining the extent to which students have access to computers at school and at home may be an indicator of how well-prepared students will be to enter an increasingly technological workplace. (NCES, 1999a, p.64)